What's in a Word?
Word studies are used by scholars to understand more about how
a particular writer is sharing their message. In the same way that
different novels have different tones, despite using the same words,
each New Testament writer has a style. A look at the words the writer
uses, and how the word is used will help us to see more about the
individual message of James, but also how that message compares
and contrasts with other New Testament writers. Have you found a
word in James that you'd like to know more about? Send us an email
at elizabethmagill@hotmail.com and we'll look it up!
Blessing, Makarios
When we hear the word blessed Christians often think of the beatitudes
from Matthew and Luke. But it turns out that the Greek word makarios
and its forms are used 54 times in the New Testament! The concept
of declaring a person blessed is common in the Old Testament as
well, typically to show that God reverses human values (Hauck 549).
The word is derived from happy, and implies good fortune.
It is used to describe people, not things, and, except in 1 Timothy
1:11 and 6:15, is never used to describe God (Hauck 548).
The beatitudes use makarios to show a reversal of human
values. Those blessed are poor, poor in spirit, meek, merciful,
pure in heart and peacemakers. It is those who are hungry, weeping
and mourning, and those that hunger and thirst for righteousness.
Perhaps most surprising is the blessing promised those who are persecuted,
reviled and defamed. It is the blessing on the persecuted that is
repeated outside the gospels. In Acts 26:2 Paul is blessed to be
able to defend himself against persecution. James 1:12 blesses those
who persevere under trial; 5:11 those who endure like Job. And in
1 Peter 3:14 and 4:14 the blessing is for suffering and being reviled
for the sake of righteousness or Christ.
In other texts it is our righteous actions that bring blessing.
Luke 14:14-15 encourages followers to invite the poor, not the wealthy,
to our banquets. John 13:17 promises blessing on our actions if
we know what is right; similar to James 1:25 blessing effective
acts. This is in contrast to forgetful hearing. Revelation 1:3 and
22:7 are similar. These texts propose that we not only read or hear
prophecy, but heed it. Jesus is quoted Acts 20:29 as saying simply
that giving is better than receiving. The emphasis is on action
as well when a woman declares Mary blessed for being the mother
of Jesus. Jesus declares
Blessed rather are those who hear the word of God and obey
it! -Luke 11:27-28
Luke does say that Mary is blessed, of course, in 1:45 and 1:48,
but it is because of her faith in God’s promise rather than
her action of carrying a child. In Matthew 13:6 and Luke 10:23 the
disciples blessed when they use their ears and eyes to understand
parables. There are many texts that bless those with faith and understanding.
Jesus declares blessed all who believe without seeing him in John
20:29. In Matthew 11:6 and Luke 7:23 Jesus blesses all who do not
take offence at his message.
Paul uses blessing as a consequence of faith in the good news.
In Romans 4:6-9 it is those who been forgiven that are blessed.
Paul emphasizes that it is not our works that brought the blessing,
but the faith, and resulting blessing, that calls us to action.
In a similar way, Romans 14:22 blesses those with confident faith.
Again, our actions must be based on unwavering faith. In Galatia
the people appear to have lost their blessing, along with their
faith (Galatians 4:15). Revelation 19:9 and 20:6 also uses the makarios
to assure believers that they will be blessed in the end times.
Makarios is used with a sense of the future, and so is
logically a part of the discussion of end-times. The beatitudes
include predictions of a better life: …for yours is the
kingdom of God, …for you will be filled, and
…for you will laugh (Luke 6:20-21). This sense of
the future is repeated in the blessing on all who are ready and
waiting for Jesus arrival in Matthew 24:46, Luke 12:37-43, and in
Revelation 16:15. Christians are called to live lives that are
self-controlled, upright, and godly as we wait for the
blessed hope of Jesus return in Titus 2:11-13.
Self-controlled, upright and godly living brings us back to the
use of makarios in James. James opens and closes with a
blessing on those who endure the trials of life (1:12, 5:11). This
is hope for the suffering, a promise that God is on the side of
the oppressed. But James is clear that endurance is active; that
blessing comes from doing the law. There is no blessing in hearing
the good news, or even believing the good news without acting on
that faith.
But those who look into the perfect law, the law of liberty,
and persevere, being not hearers who forget but doers who act—they
will be blessed in their doing. -James 1:25
Frederich Hauck, “makarios”, in Freidrich Gerhard ed,
Geoffrey W. Bromily, trans., Theological Dictionary of the New
Testament Vol VI (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing
Company, 1968).
Diaspora
James 1:1 opens with a greeting to the dispersion. The
Greek is diaspora is derived from diaspeiro, which
means scatter. Neither word is used frequently in the New
Testament; the other uses don't shed much light on James' understanding
of the word.
In Acts 8:1, 4 and 11:10 diaspeiro is used to refer to
Christians who have scattered for fear of persecution.
The word is used in the Greek Old Testament, the Septuagint, to
refer to the people of Israel who are living in exile, or living
among Gentiles. Outside of Biblical texts the word refers more the
chaos of ordinary life when we have not found divine harmony (Shrenk
156). In John 7:35 diaspora seems to have the Old Testament
sense, as the Jewish leaders misunderstand Jesus as leaving to preach
to the Jews living in Gentile lands. 1 Peter 1:1 is quite clear
in its reference to people living in exile outside of Palestine.
But James 1:1 is the only text referring to the twelve tribes
in the dispersion. If James is the brother of Jesus, and a
leader of the Jerusalem church, why is he writing to the people
in exile, outside of Palestine? Some scholars have argued instead
that diaspora in this text refers to scattering in a spiritual
sense-that is, we are all far removed from the promised kingdom
of God (Johnson 186). Yet Johnson argues that Jewish Christians
in Antioch, Syria, and Cilicia might be the audience James intended;
they are within the influence of Jerusalem, yet scattered
from the center (Johnson 186). Tamez notes that the diaspora
live transitory lives, they are those whose culture is different
from their neighbors. And the diaspora, the exiles, the
outsiders, are often those that are oppressed (Tamez 19).
Luke Timothy Johnson, "The Letter of James" in Leander Keck et
al, eds., The New Interpreter's Bible, Volume XII, (Nashville:
Abingdon, 2000).
G. Shrenk, II, “diaspora” in Gerhard Kittle and Gerhard
Friedrich, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament Abridged
in One Volume by Geoffrey W. Bromily, (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm
B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1985.)
Elsa Tamez, The Scandalous Message of James: Faith Without
Works is Dead, (New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company,
1990).
Perfect, Teleios
Some of us grew up with the understanding that practice makes
perfect, but the more typical phrase today is nobody’s
perfect. We have come to think of perfection as impossible
to achieve, but to understand James, we need to be aware of perfection
as an ideal, modeled by God, yet still an attainable ideal for Christian
community. In Greek, the words teleios, telos,
and telioo all imply perfection.
Perfection for Plato is found in the world of ideas,
and is therefore unattainable in this imperfect world (Hartin 19).
It is, however, a goal we should strive for. Greek philosophy also
uses perfection as a concept that can be achieved; it is
the idea of maturity, actualization (Bromily 1164), discerning and
doing what is ethically good.
In the Hebrew use of the word, perfection is completely
achievable. The earliest uses refer to choosing a perfect
animal for sacrifice. The perfect animal is one without
blemish, or an animal that has all the expected traits of that species.
For people, perfection is simply wholehearted devotion
to God (Hartin 24). The first century Jewish philosopher Philo introduces
the idea that perfection belongs only to God, although
he still encourage the faithful to seek perfection by turning to
God. Perfection is found only in God’s grace (Hartin 29-30).
The Qumran community, keepers of The Dead Sea Scrolls, found perfection
through obedience to the law. They described it as the path one
takes to live by Torah (Hartin 27).
Moving from Torah to the New Testament, the translations for teleios
are most commonly complete, mature, or perfect.
Teleioo is to make perfect, accomplish
or finish. Telos is used for end or outcome,
sometimes fulfillment. The Gospels use telos extensively,
meaning an end that is coming in the future, an accomplishment
or perfection that is yet to come. Matthew is the only
Gospel to use teleios, where it means whole, or
undivided (Delling 1165), quite similar to James’
understanding of the word. John uses teleioo often, describing
Jesus’ accomplishment of what God has set out.
Paul finds perfection only in Christ (Hartin 35). He
uses all three words, yet without any of the Hebrew concept that
we can become perfect in God’s eyes. While Abraham and Noah
are found blameless in the Old Testament, Paul uses Abraham to show
that we cannot become perfect by our works, only by our faith. Yet
Paul is similar to James in setting up perfection in contrast to
worldliness.
Do not be conformed to this world, but be transformed by
the renewing of your minds, so that you may discern what is the
will of God—what is good and acceptable and perfect.
–Romans 12:2.
Patrick Hartin argues that James’ letter is a call to Christian
perfection. Perfection for James is found in faith,
faith that is lived out in community. It is a wholly achievable
goal. Both the NRSV and NIV translate teleios as mature
in 1:4; Moo argues this is not a strong enough word. The NASB is
more accurate, using perfect. James sets the goal for us
to be perfect like God is perfect, and we should not lower that
standard (Moo 56). It is God’s perfect gifts that
are offered in 1:17, one of those gifts is the perfect law
in 1:25. In James 3:2 teleios seems to be merely self-control,
our ability to control our tongues, and thus ourselves. We should
not lose sight of the fact that for James living out the law of
liberty is found in the action, or works, of self-control.
It is Abraham’s actions that complete his faith
in James 2:22. The Greek here is teleioo, meaning accomplish
or finish, but also implying make perfect. James
is calling us to be made perfect by our actions, by doing
works that complete our faith. In 5:11 NRSV translates
telos as purpose, but it also has the implication
of perfection. It is the end we were meant to achieve,
the completion of our lives. God’s perfection is in compassion
and mercy, and that is how we too will find perfection.
G. Delling, “telios”, in Freidrich Gerhard ed, Geoffrey
W. Bromily, trans., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament
Vol VI (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing Company,
1968).
Patrick J. Hartin, A Spirituality of Perfection: Faith in Action
in the Letter of James (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press,
1999).
Douglas J. Moo, The Letter of James in The Pillar New Testament
Commentary, DA Carson, general editor. (Grand Rapids, Michigan:
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2000).
Poor, Ptochos
The word poor in the New Testament is translated from a
form of the Greek ptochos everywhere except in 2 Corinthians
9:9, which uses the term penes. Penes refers to
those who work hard for a living (Schmidt 37), their daily bread
is from their own labor, not from someone else’s; certainly
not from investments. Although the word poor is not in
the text, Tamez’ argument is valid that in James 5:4, the
laborers are penes, the working poor. The laborers paid
the same wage in Matthew 20:1-18 are penes as well. The
word laborer is used for the elders in 1 Timothy 5:17-18,
but it is less clear whether to consider them poor.
There is no question about the poverty of all those referred to
as ptochos. This word is used for people who are totally
without resources. The ptochos are beggars, homeless, without
jobs or prospects for jobs. And yet James is clear about the place
of the ptochos in God’s eyes:
Has not God chosen the poor in the world to be rich in faith
and to be heirs of the kingdom that he has promised to those who
love him? –James 2:5
Indeed James’ concern for the poor can be seen in simple
statistics: the letter writer uses the word 4 times within 4 chapters.
The gospel of John uses it 4 times in 21 chapters, Matthew and Mark
each use the word only 5 times. Paul uses the word 7 times in all
of his letters. Luke come close to James with 10 uses in 24 chapters
of the Gospel, yet doesn’t use the word at all in the book
of Acts! Bammel argues James has increased use of the word because
he is facing a new phenomenon in the church—the rich are beginning
to join (Bammel 911). James' letter is trying to make clear that
the societal values placed on wealth are not the values of the God,
and thus should not be the values of the Church.
Whether the rich are new to the Church, it is clear that Jesus
message was one of priority for the poor. Matthew and Luke both
have what is considered to be one of Jesus’ basic sermons:
Blessed are you who are poor, for yours is the kingdom of
God.
Luke 6:20 see also Matthew 5:3
The word poor is used when Jesus sends message to John
that he is the predicted one in Matthew 11:5 and Luke 7:22. The
evidence is the poor have good news brought to them. Jesus'
ministry begins with a reading from Isaiah in a Nazareth synagogue
in Luke 4:18. The text proclaims a messiah that brings good news
to the poor and freedom to the oppressed. The rich are told to sell
their possessions and give the money to the poor in Matthew 19:21,
Mark 10:21 and Luke 18:22. In Luke 16:20 and 22 the poor man, Lazarus,
gets his reward in heaven, while Zacchaeus pays back the poor now
in 19:8. And, in a new definition of hospitality, two banquet stories
provide images of the poor enjoying plenty while the rich are excluded
(Luke 14:13 and 21).
And yet, with or without the word ptochos, the Gospel
is full of the concept of poverty and oppression. Jesus may or may
not have been born to a poor woman, but Mary conceived out of wedlock,
and escaped to live with her Aunt during her pregnancy. Joseph and
Mary lived as refugees in Egypt when Jesus was young. And while
John the Baptists' primary message was to repent, he also called
followers to share food and clothes with those in need.
Food, and the need for it, is the focus of all who are poor. Jesus’
first miracle is more wine at the wedding feast in Cana, which presumes
the family did not have enough. The feeding of the 4000 (or more)
is a miracle that presumes the crowd could not feed themselves.
The Lord’s Prayer asks not for security, or even plenty, but
only for our daily bread. These are all stories of good news for
those who do not have enough.
Jesus’ healing ministry also shows us the importance of the
oppressed to the gospel message. He heals those with unclean spirits,
the sick, lepers, and paralytics. The blind see, the mute speak,
the deaf can hear. Jesus’ healing moves these outsiders, outside
their life as oppressed people into the mainstream. Those who are
persecuted are offered hope, comfort is offered for the weary.
And Jesus spends time with those who are outside the social standards
of his day. He visits with a Syrophoenician/Canaanite woman, uses
a Samaritan as an example of who is “good” and lets
the woman with the perfume anoint his body. Jesus uses children
as examples, and heals women, children, servants and slaves. In
fact women, slaves, the poor and sick, outsiders of all sorts are
found throughout the Gospel.
It could be argued that Paul missed this point. Like his use of
rich to mean full, Paul uses poor mostly in a
generic sense, meaning lacking. Paul is more concerned
with lacking faith in Christ rather than material poverty and oppression.
He does complement the churches that are sending gifts to the poor
in Jerusalem in Romans 15:26. It is interesting that he mentions
that James, along with Cephas and John, that remind him to remember
the poor in Galatians 2:10. But the poor are those without
the message of Christ in 2 Corinthians 6:10 and Galatians 4:9. In
Revelation 3:17 poor is used similarly.
For James, however, material poverty and oppression are clearly
the subject. It could be argued that the Letter of James is more
similar to the Gospel message concerning poverty than any other
New Testament text. In chapter 2 James demands that the poor be
treated equally with the rich visitor, and that the poor are heirs
to the kingdom.
Ernst Bammel, “ptochos”, in Freidrich Gerhard ed, Geoffrey
W. Bromily, trans., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament
Vol VI (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing Company,
1968.)
Karl Ludwig Schmidt, “penes” in Freidrich Gerhard ed,
Geoffrey W. Bromily, trans., Theological Dictionary of the New
Testament Vol VI (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing
Company, 1968.)
REJOICE, chairo, chara
Looking up joy or chara in James 1:2 turns
up a surprise. The word joy or delight is derived
from the word chairo, which is used in James 1:1 and translated
greeting. James uses chara again in 4:9, calling
for a reversal, that our joy might be turned to mourning.
The word is used as a greeting in Acts 15:23, Acts
23:26, and James 1:1, yet must be understood as more than hello;
perhaps glad to see you would be the modern equivalent.
It is translated with a form of rejoice 73% of the time,
and a form of glad for an additional 12% of the uses.
The use of joy as a greeting in letters
is found in secular Greek, somewhat like we use good morning.
It is used as well to greet the gods and as a closing to hymns.
The Old Testament uses the word in a festive sense, at weddings
and harvest celebrations, as well as to describe God’s rejoicing.
Philo, a first century Jewish philosopher, describes joy
as a gift that is available only from God, the result of virtue
and wisdom. In the New Testament joy and rejoicing
come from faith, and from God’s rule, but we are also to rejoice
in suffering and persecution (Conzelmann 1299).
“Blessed are you when people revile you
and persecute you and utter all kinds of evil against you falsely
on my account. Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is great in
heaven, for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who were
before you. -Matthew 5:11-12
Tamez finds hope for the future implicit in James
choice to open his letter with a call to rejoice.
H. Conzelmann, “charein”, in Freidrich Gerhard ed,
Geoffrey W. Bromily, trans., Theological Dictionary of the New
Testament Vol VI (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing
Company, 1968).
Rich, Ploutos
Ploutos meaning wealth, plousios or rich
people, and ploutizo which is to make rich
are all used frequently in the New Testament. The words are derived
from the idea of to flow, or abound. In early
Greek thought the word is used synonymously with nobility;
essentially wealth is security, nobility, being full of all that
is good. By the sixth century BCE the concept of rich person is
used both with good and bad connotations, as the idea develops that
it might be more important to have wisdom than money Hauck 319).
The pursuit of wisdom, of course, required a certain wealth, for
those without it must work rather than study.
The wealth of the rich is their fortress; the poverty of
the poor is their ruin. –Proverbs 10:15
The words for wealth are found throughout the Greek Old Testament,
the Septuagint. Almost half of the occurrences are found in wisdom
literature, where the view on wealth is divided. Many passages identify
wealth with security, peace, and leading a full and happy life.
Proverbs 10:15, 24:4 and 10:4 are examples of the idea that wealth
is the result of living a right life. Yet wisdom texts also warn
of the risk of wealth—the danger of pride, of trusting riches
rather than God, and of living a corrupt life (Hauck 324).
Better to be poor and walk in integrity than to be crooked
in one’s ways even though rich.
–Proverbs 28:6
The words of the prophets, on the other hand, are words of condemnation
for wealth. The prophets generally equate rich people with those
who have oppressed the poor. The rich have not followed the law,
and will be destroyed. It is these texts that are most similar to
the language of James in their discussion of rich people. In Amos
8:4-6 the rich are those who trample the needy, they buy
the poor for silver, and sell the sweepings from the
winnowing floor. Jeremiah 22:13 cries out woe for those who are
unrighteous and unjust, making their neighbors work for nothing
and withholding their wages. Compare this with James 5:1-6 where
the rich are doomed for holding back the wages of the laborer.
In Paul’s Letters ploutos and its forms are common,
but are primarily used in to mean full of or great
deal, or perhaps overflowing. In 2 Corinthians 8:2,
the community is praised for their wealth of generosity.
Colossians 3:16 calls us to Let the word of Christ dwell in
you richly. The riches of Christ’s glorious inheritance
are calling us in Ephesians 1:18, the boundless riches
of Christ in 3:8. Paul generally does not discuss the role of the
rich person, or the place of wealth within the church.
The synoptic gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke) present many rich characters,
and commentaries on wealth. The gospel of John does not use the
word. All three synoptics use ploutos, or riches
in the story of the seeds sown in a field. The weeds symbolize the
deceitfulness of riches, along with worry of the world in Matthew
13:22 and desires for other things in Mark 4:19. Riches choke out
the word of God. We can see where James got his concern for friendliness
with the world when we look at Luke’s version of this story.
Luke 8:14 has worries and riches and pleasures of this life
preventing the seed from taking root.
Indeed Jesus’ message does not take root in the story of
the rich young man seeking eternal life. In Luke he is described
as a ruler or official, but in all three gospels Jesus comment is
about the man’s wealth.
Again I tell you, it is easier for a camel to go through
the eye of a needle than for someone who is rich to enter the
kingdom of God. -Matt 19:24, Mk 10:25, Lk 18:25
Yet all is possible with God, and we find a rich man, Joseph of
Arimathea, is called a disciple in Matthew 27:57. Since he is identified
as rich, and a disciple, perhaps we can assume that he did not take
a vow of poverty when he chose to follow Jesus. It seems likely,
however that he did not expect special privileges because of his
wealth. Notice in Mark 12:41-44, Jesus does not suggest that the
wealthy are not welcome in the community. His point is rather that
the poor widow’s gift greater than theirs.
In the same way, James takes on the problem of poor and rich visitors
in 2:1-5. The message is not to send the rich away, but that their
wealth does not bring privilege. The rich are called to be humble
and the congregation is reminded to treat everyone equally. God
opposes the proud, but gives grace to the humble. –James
4:6
Luke is the most explicit gospel writer in suggesting that the
wealthy will be brought low. Luke’s addition of woes to the
beatitudes in 6:24-26 reminds the rich that they have their reward
now, and should expect suffering later. The story of the rich fool,
storing away his wealth in Luke 12:16 calls to mind James 5:3 where
the rich have foolishly laid up treasure for the last days.
Indeed in Luke 16:19-31 the poor beggar Lazarus is comforted by
God while the rich man burns. And yet only Luke, with the most harsh
in critique of wealth, has the story of Zacchaeus (19:1-10), the
rich man who hears the call to repentance. Zacchaeus gives away
half his possessions, and gives back four times to any he has defrauded.
Consider again James 4:1-10 and the offer of conversion for the
rich.
Draw near to God, and he will draw near to you. Cleanse
your hands, you sinners, and purify your hearts, you double-minded.
-James 4:8
Frederich Hauck, Wilhelm Kasch, “ploutos”, in Freidrich
Gerhard ed, Geoffrey W. Bromily, trans., Theological Dictionary
of the New Testament Vol VI (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 1968.)
Works,
Ergon
Various forms of ergon meaning deeds or
works is found 158 times in the New Testament and 12 times
in James. The word is used often for God's work, but also for human
labor. Throughout the Greek world there is a tension between words,
logos, and works, ergon. Greek philosophy and
the Old Testament demand that our words and works
be kept in harmony (Bertram 254). This is clearly James' call in
1:25 and 2:17.
In James 1:4 you may not notice the presence of works,
it is translated result or effect. In 1:25 it
is the word effectual or act, not doer
that is a form of ergon. The verse is then being not
hearers who forget but doers who "ergon" literally
do works or complete deeds. Wisdom and works are
connected in James 3:13 where the gentleness of our deeds
or works shows whether we are living by God's wisdom.
Compare the use of ergon throughout James chapter
two where faith is dead without ergon, with Hebrews 6:1
where ergon that do not proceed from faith are dead. Paul
perhaps is combining these two ideas in 1 Cor 12:6 where having
faith makes it so God's work (energeo) can be accomplished.
In James 5:16 as well it is our effective prayer, that
is energeo, will accomplish, again energeo,
much. Again it is God who is actually doing the work. The Greek
energeo still means to be at work or to act,
but is related to having energy for action (Bertram 254).
G. Bertram, "Ergon" in Freidrich Gerhard
ed, Geoffrey W. Bromily, trans., Theological Dictionary of the
New Testament Vol VI (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing
Company, 1968.)
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