Word Studies James

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Guided Bible Study

Background on James

The Scandal of James

A Word for the Wise

The End is at Hand

Finding Spiritual
Wholeness in James

James' View of
The World

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Worship Resources
STILL TO COME

What's in a Word?

Word studies are used by scholars to understand more about how a particular writer is sharing their message. In the same way that different novels have different tones, despite using the same words, each New Testament writer has a style. A look at the words the writer uses, and how the word is used will help us to see more about the individual message of James, but also how that message compares and contrasts with other New Testament writers. Have you found a word in James that you'd like to know more about? Send us an email and we'll look it up!

Background Pages
What's In A Word? | James uses Biblical Texts | Paul and James
Will the REAL James Stand Up? | When was James Written?
To Whom is James Sent? | Canon: Is James IN or OUT?
Read it Yourself: Comments on James in the Canon
Annotated Bibliography

Blessing, Makarios
When we hear the word blessed Christians often think of the beatitudes from Matthew and Luke. But it turns out that the Greek word makarios and its forms are used 54 times in the New Testament! The concept of declaring a person blessed is common in the Old Testament as well, typically to show that God reverses human values (549). The word is derived from happy, and implies good fortune. It is used to describe people, not things, and, except in 1 Timothy 1:11 and 6:15, is never used to describe God (548).

The beatitudes use makarios to show a reversal of human values. Those blessed are poor, poor in spirit, meek, merciful, pure in heart and peacemakers. It is those who are hungry, weeping and mourning, and those that hunger and thirst for righteousness. Perhaps most surprising is the blessing promised those who are persecuted, reviled and defamed. It is the blessing on the persecuted that is repeated outside the gospels. In Acts 26:2 Paul is blessed to be able to defend himself against persecution. James 1:12 blesses those who persevere under trial; 5:11 those who endure like Job. And in 1 Peter 3:14 and 4:14 the blessing is for suffering and being reviled for the sake of righteousness or Christ.

In other texts it is our righteous actions that bring blessing. Luke 14:14-15 encourages followers to invite the poor, not the wealthy, to our banquets. John 13:17 promises blessing on our actions if we know what is right; similar to James 1:25 blessing effective acts. This is in contrast to forgetful hearing. Revelation 1:3 and 22:7 are similar. These texts propose that we not only read or hear prophecy, but heed it. Jesus is quoted Acts 20:29 as saying simply that giving is better than receiving. The emphasis is on action as well when a woman declares Mary blessed for being the mother of Jesus. Jesus declares

Blessed rather are those who hear the word of God and obey it! (Luke 11:27-28)

Luke does say that Mary is blessed, of course, in 1:45 and 1:48, but it is because of her faith in God’s promise rather than her action of carrying a child. In Matthew 13:6 and Luke 10:23 the disciples blessed when they use their ears and eyes to understand parables. There are many texts that bless those with faith and understanding. Jesus declares blessed all who believe without seeing him in John 20:29. In Matthew 11:6 and Luke 7:23 Jesus blesses all who do not take offence at his message.

Paul uses blessing as a consequence of faith in the good news. In Romans 4:6-9 it is those who been forgiven that are blessed. Paul emphasizes that it is not our works that brought the blessing, but the faith, and resulting blessing, that calls us to action. In a similar way, Romans14:22 blesses those with confident faith. Again, our actions must be based on unwavering faith. In Galatia the people appear to have lost their blessing, along with their faith (Galatians 4:15). Revelation 19:9 and 20:6 also uses the makarios to assure believers that they will be blessed in the end times.

Makarios is used with a sense of the future, and so is logically a part of the discussion of end-times. The beatitudes include predictions of a better life: …for yours is the kingdom of God, …for you will be filled, and …for you will laugh (Luke 6:20-21). This sense of the future is repeated in the blessing on all who are ready and waiting for Jesus arrival in Matthew 24:46, Luke 12:37-43, and in Revelation 16:15. Christians are called to live lives that are self-controlled, upright, and godly as we wait for the blessed hope of Jesus return in Titus 2:11-13.

Self-controlled, upright and godly living brings us back to the use of makarios in James. James opens and closes with a blessing on those who endure the trials of life (1:12, 5:11). This is hope for the suffering, a promise that God is on the side of the oppressed. But James is clear that endurance is active; that blessing comes from doing the law. There is no blessing in hearing the good news, or even believing the good news without acting on that faith.

But those who look into the perfect law, the law of liberty, and persevere, being not hearers who forget but doers who act—they will be blessed in their doing. -James 1:25

Resources (Link to full Bibliography for web site)
Frederich Hauck, “makarios”, in Freidrich Gerhard ed, Geoffrey W. Bromily, trans., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament Vol VI (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1968).

Diaspora
James 1:1 opens with a greeting to the dispersion. The Greek is diaspora is derived from diaspeiro, which means scatter. Neither word is used frequently in the New Testament; the other uses don't shed much light on James understanding of the word.

In Acts 8:1, 4 and 11:10 diaspeiro is used to refer to Christians who have scattered for fear of persecution. The word is used in the Greek Old Testament, the Septuagint, to refer to the people of Israel who are living in exile, or living among Gentiles. Outside of Biblical texts the word refers more the chaos of ordinary life when we have not found divine harmony (S156). In John 7:35 diaspora seems to have the Old Testament sense, as the Jewish leaders misunderstand Jesus as leaving to preach to the Jews living in Gentile lands. 1 Peter 1:1 is quite clear in its reference to people living in exile outside of Palestine.

But James 1:1 is the only text referring to the twelve tribes in the dispersion. If James is the brother of Jesus, and a leader of the Jerusalem church, why is he writing to the people in exile, outside of Palestine? Some scholars have argued instead that diaspora in this text refers to scattering in a spiritual sense-that is, we are all far removed from the promised kingdom of God (J186). Yet Johnson argues that Jewish Christians in Antioch, Syria, and Cilicia might be the audience James intended; they are within the influence of Jerusalem, yet scattered from the center (J186). Tamez notes that the diaspora live transitory lives, they are those whose culture is different from their neighbors. And the diaspora, the exiles, the outsiders, are often those that are oppressed (T19).

Resources (Link to full Bibliography for web site)
Luke Timothy Johnson, "The Letter of James" in Leander Keck et al, eds., The New Interpreter's Bible, Volume XII, (Nashville: Abingdon, 2000).

G. Shrenk, II, “diaspora” in Gerhard Kittle and Gerhard Friedrich, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament Abridged in One Volume by Geoffrey W. Bromily, (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1985.)

Elsa Tamez, The Scandalous Message of James: Faith Without Works is Dead, (New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1990).

Patience, Hypomone, Makrothymia
From “Militant Patience” by Elsa Tamez in The Scandalous Message of James: Faith Without Works is Dead. (NY: Crossroad Publishing Company, 2002). Order this book.

“For James one of the most important elements at the core of praxis is patience, a difficult attribute in desperate situations of oppression. Thus James insistently challenges his readers to ‘have patience.’

Traditionally the word ‘patience’ has been understood as signifying a passive and submissive attitude. People are patient because nothing can be done about their situations. Such an interpretation has been prejudicial for the lives of Christians and their communities, for it encourages resignation, a lack of commitment to concrete realities, and a subjection to the governing authorities (Rom. 13:1). James is not referring in any way to this kind of patience. He calls for a militant patience, that is, a very active and heroic patience, one that watches for the propitious moment. There are four Greek terms for patience: anechomai, kartereo, makrothymia, and hypomone. These are strictly military terms and are used as metaphors referring to the battles of life. The author of the epistle uses two of these four Greek terms to refer to patience: hypomone and makrothymia. Although these can be used synonymously, they have significant differences. Hypomone, or the verb form hypomeno (used frequently in military situations), appears in [James 1:3-4, 12 and James 5:11].

“Here to be patient means to persevere, to resist, to be constant, unbreakable, immovable. Most scholars agree that there is an active meaning of the term. James is very clear in this regard when he says in 1:3-4 that patience is accompanied by perfect works. This is a militant patience that arises from the roots of oppression; it is an active, working patience. In 1:12 James speaks of those who resist the trial and overcome it, those who do not succumb to pain and oppression. This is heroic suffering, as Dibelius [a James scholar] calls it. In the book of Maccabees, which narrate the Jewish resistance to the Greeks, the word hypomone appears more than in any other book of the Hebrew Bible. In those accounts it speaks of the ‘courage and patience [hypomone] of the mother of the heroes and their children” (4 Macc. 1:11).

"In the book of Revelation the word also continually appears with this same meaning. There the author speaks to us of the bloody persecution of the Christians and of the patience and endurance of the victims. According to Falkenroth and Brown, hypomone frequently expresses the attribute of the person living in the light of the last days and is linked very closely to hope. In Romans 5:3 we can verify this relationship. James 5:11 alludes to the patience (hypomone) of Job, a personality very mistakenly interpreted in our time. Here we have to understand ‘patience’ in the same sense that we have seen. The patience of Job was in no way passive. Only in the early moments of his miserable life was there any indication of resignation, but from chapter 3 on all his verbal fury erupted against his situation and he did not desist until the Almighty came onto the scene. Job did not succumb to pain; on the contrary, the more he experience attacks, isolation, and suffering, the more he was strengthened, the greater his self-confidence. Job resisted unto death and God vindicated him.

"This is the kind of patience that James recommends to the Christian communities. He may well have realized the difficulty of their situation and the need for valiant perseverance, that is, militant patience. Nonetheless, at the end of his letter James employs the world makrothymia for patience, which can be understood as a synonym for perseverance or persistence only in 5:10-11. On the other occasions the word has a special nuance, namely, not to despair, to contain oneself, to await an even that is sure to come. The term appears in the context of the coming of the Lord and Judge. [Makrothymia is used in James 5:7-8, 10.]

“This term for patience does not have the active meaning like the one we saw previously, but neither is it passive in the traditional negative sense. The attitude is that of awaiting, as it were, on alert. The farmers await with patience and joy the fruit that will come from the care of their plants. They can do nothing to make it come sooner, for everything takes time. So too the oppressed community of James know s that its difficult situation is going to change, that judgment has been pronounced in favor of those who suffer. It is important that they do not despair… [nor should they] wait for God to come and do away with the oppressor. …Rather it is a question of doing everything possible not to despair in spite of the desperate situation” (Tamez 43-46).

Perfect, Teleios
Some of us grew up with the understanding that practice makes perfect, but the more typical phrase today is nobody’s perfect. We have come to think of perfection as impossible to achieve, but to understand James, we need to be aware of perfection as an ideal, modeled by God, yet still an attainable ideal for Christian community. In Greek, the words teleios, telos, and telioo all imply perfection.

Perfection for Plato is found in the world of ideas, and is therefore unattainable in this imperfect world (H19). It is, however, a goal we should strive for. Greek philosophy also uses perfection as a concept for something we can achieve; it is the idea of maturity, actualization (D1164), discerning and doing what is ethically good.

In the Hebrew use of the word, perfection is completely achievable. The earliest uses refer to choosing a perfect animal for sacrifice. The perfect animal is one without blemish, or an animal that has all the expected traits of that species. For people, perfection is simply wholehearted devotion to God (H24). The first century Jewish philosopher Philo introduces the idea that perfection belongs only to God, although he still encourage the faithful to seek perfection by turning to God. Perfection is found only in God’s grace (H29-30). The Qumran community, keepers of The Dead Sea Scrolls, found perfection through obedience to the law. They described it as the path one takes to live by Torah (H27).

Moving from Torah to the New Testament, the translations for teleios are most commonly complete, mature, or perfect. Teleioo is to make perfect, accomplish or finish. Telos is used for end or outcome, sometimes fulfillment. The Gospels use telos extensively, meaning an end that is coming in the future, an accomplishment or perfection that is yet to come. Matthew is the only Gospel to use teleios, where it means whole, or undivided (D1165), quite similar to James’ understanding of the word. John uses teleioo often, describing Jesus’ accomplishment of what God has set out.

Paul finds perfection only in Christ (H35). He uses all three words, yet without implying the Hebrew concept that we can become perfect in God’s eyes. While Abraham and Noah are found blameless in the Old Testament, Paul uses Abraham to show that we cannot become perfect by our works, only by our faith. Yet Paul is similar to James in setting up perfection in contrast to worldliness.

Do not be conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your minds, so that you may discern what is the will of God—what is good and acceptable and perfect. –Romans 12:2.

Patrick Hartin argues that James’ letter is a call to Christian perfection. Perfection for James is found in faith, faith that is lived out in community. It is a wholly achievable goal. Both the NRSV and NIV translate teleios as mature in 1:4; Moo argues this is not a strong enough word. The NASB is more accurate, using perfect. James sets the goal for us to be perfect like God is perfect, and we should not lower that standard (M56). It is God’s perfect gifts that are offered in 1:17, one of those gifts is the perfect law in 1:25. In James 3:2 teleios seems to be merely self-control, our ability to control our tongues, and thus ourselves. We should not lose sight of the fact that for James living out the law of liberty is found in the action, or works, of self-control.

It is Abraham’s actions that complete his faith in James 2:22. The Greek here is teleioo, meaning accomplish or finish, but also implying make perfect. James is calling us to be made perfect by our actions, by doing works that complete our faith. In 5:11 NRSV translates telos as purpose, but here also is the implication of perfection. It is the end we were meant to achieve, the completion of our lives. God’s perfection is in compassion and mercy, and that is how we too will find perfection.

Resources (Link to full Bibliography for web site)
G. Delling, “telios”, in Freidrich Gerhard ed, Geoffrey W. Bromily, trans., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament Vol VI (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1968.)

Patrick J. Hartin, A Spirituality of Perfection: Faith in Action in the Letter of James (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1999).

Douglas J. Moo, The Letter of James in The Pillar New Testament Commentary, DA Carson, general editor. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2000).

Poor, Ptochos
The word poor in the New Testament is translated from a form of the Greek ptochos everywhere except in 2 Corinthians 9:9, which uses the term penes. Penes refers to those who work hard for a living (S37), their daily bread is from their own labor, not from someone else’s; certainly not from investments. Although the word poor is not in the text, Tamez’ argument is valid that in James 5:4, the laborers are penes, the working poor. The laborers paid the same wage in Matthew 20:1-18 are penes as well. The word laborer is used for the elders in 1Timothy 5:17-18, but it is less clear whether to consider them poor.

There is no question about the poverty of all those referred to as ptochos. This word is used for people who are totally without resources. The ptochos are beggars, homeless, without jobs or prospects for jobs. And yet James is clear about the place of the ptochos in God’s eyes:

Has not God chosen the poor in the world to be rich in faith and to be heirs of the kingdom that he has promised to those who love him? –James 2:5

Indeed James’ concern for the poor can be seen in simple statistics: the letter writer uses the word 4 times within 4 chapters. The gospel of John uses it 4 times in 21 chapters, Matthew and Mark each use the word only 5 times. Paul uses the word 7 times in all of his letters. Luke come close to James with 10 uses in 24 chapters of the Gospel, yet doesn't use the word at all in the book of Acts! Bammel argues James has increased use of the word because he is facing a new phenomenon in the church—the rich are beginning to join (B911). James' letter is trying to make clear that the societal values placed on wealth are not the values of the God, and thus should not be the values of the Church.

Whether the rich are new to the Church, it is clear that Jesus message was one of priority for the poor. Matthew and Luke both have what is considered to be one of Jesus’ basic sermons:

Blessed are you who are poor,
for yours is the kingdom of God.
Luke 6:20 see also Matthew 5:3

The word poor is used when Jesus sends message to John that he is the predicted one in Matthew 11:5 and Luke 7:22. The evidence is the poor have good news brought to them. Jesus' ministry begins with a reading from Isaiah in a Nazareth synagogue in Luke 4:18. The text proclaims a messiah that brings good news to the poor and freedom to the oppressed. The rich are told to sell their possessions and give the money to the poor in Matthew 19:21, Mark 10:21 and Luke 18:22. In Luke 16:20 and 22 the poor man, Lazarus, gets his reward in heaven, while Zacchaeus pays back the poor now in 19:8. And, in a new definition of hospitality, two banquet stories provide images of the poor enjoying plenty while the rich are excluded (Luke 14:13 and 21).

And yet, with or without the word ptochos, the Gospel is full of the concept of poverty and oppression. Jesus may or may not have been born to a poor woman, but Mary conceived out of wedlock, and escaped to live with her Aunt during her pregnancy. Joseph and Mary lived as refugees in Egypt when Jesus was young. And while John the Baptists' primary message was to repent, he also called followers to share food and clothes with those in need.

Food, and the need for it, is the focus of all who are poor. Jesus’ first miracle is more wine at the wedding feast in Cana, which presumes the family did not have enough. The feeding of the 4000 (or more) is a miracle that presumes the crowd could not feed themselves. The Lord’s Prayer asks not for security, or even plenty, but only for our daily bread. These are all stories of good news for those who do not have enough.

Jesus’ healing ministry also shows us the importance of the oppressed to the gospel message. He heals those with unclean spirits, the sick, lepers, and paralytics. The blind see, the mute speak, the deaf can hear. Jesus’ healing moves these outsiders, outside their life as oppressed people into the mainstream. Those who are persecuted are offered hope, comfort is offered for the weary.

And Jesus spends time with those who are outside the social standards of his day. He visits with a Syrophoenician/Canaanite woman, uses a Samaritan as an example of who is “good” and lets the woman with the perfume anoint his body. Jesus uses children as examples, and heals women, children, servants and slaves. In fact women, slaves, the poor and sick, outsiders of all sorts are found throughout the Gospel.

It could be argued that Paul missed this point. Like his use of rich to mean full, Paul uses poor mostly in a generic sense, meaning lacking. Paul is more concerned with lacking faith in Christ rather than material poverty and oppression. He does complement the churches that are sending gifts to the poor in Jerusalem in Romans 15:26. It is interesting that he mentions that James, along with Cephas and John, that remind him to remember the poor in Galatians 2:10. But the poor are those without the message of Christ in 2 Corinthians 6:10 and Galatians 4:9. In Revelation 3:17 poor is used similarly.

For James, however, material poverty and oppression are clearly the subject. It could be argued that the Letter of James is more similar to the Gospel message concerning poverty than any other New Testament text. In chapter 2 James demands that the poor be treated equally with the rich visitor, and that the poor are heirs to the kingdom.

Resources (Link to full Bibliography for web site)
Ernst Bammel, “ptochos”, in Freidrich Gerhard ed, Geoffrey W. Bromily, trans., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament Vol VI (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1968.)

Karl Ludwig Schmidt, “penes” in Freidrich Gerhard ed, Geoffrey W. Bromily, trans., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament Vol VI (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1968.)

Rejoice, Chairo, Chara
Looking up joy or chara in James 1:2 turns up a surprise. The word joy or delight is derived from the word chairo, which is used in James 1:1 and translated greeting. James uses chara again in 4:9, calling for a reversal, that our joy might be turned to mourning.
The word is used as a greeting in Acts 15:23, Acts 23:26, and James 1:1, yet must be understood as more than hello; perhaps glad to see you would be the modern equivalent. It is translated with a form of rejoice 73% of the time, and a form of glad for an additional 12% of the uses.

The use of joy as a greeting in letters is found in secular Greek, somewhat like we use good morning. It is used as well to greet the gods and as a closing to hymns. The Old Testament uses the word in a festive sense, at weddings and harvest celebrations, as well as to describe God’s rejoicing. Philo, a first century Jewish philosopher, describes joy as a gift that is available only from God, the result of virtue and wisdom. In the New Testament joy and rejoicing come from faith, and from God’s rule, but we are also to rejoice in suffering and persecution (C1299).

“Blessed are you when people revile you and persecute you and utter all kinds of evil against you falsely on my account. Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is great in heaven, for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who were before you. -Matthew 5:11-12

Tamez finds hope for the future implicit in James choice to open his letter with a call to rejoice.

Resources (Link to full Bibliography for web site)
H. Conzelmann, “charein”, in Freidrich Gerhard ed, Geoffrey W. Bromily, trans., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament Vol VI (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1968.)

Rich, Ploutos
Ploutos meaning wealth, plousios or rich people, and ploutizo which is to make rich are all used frequently in the New Testament. The words are derived from the idea of to flow, or abound. In early Greek thought the word is used synonymously with nobility; essentially wealth is security, nobility, being full of all that is good. By the sixth century BCE the concept of rich person is used both with good and bad connotations, as the idea develops that it might be more important to have wisdom than money (319). The pursuit of wisdom, of course, required a certain wealth, for those without it must work rather than study.

The wealth of the rich is their fortress;
the poverty of the poor is their ruin. –Proverbs 10:15

The words for wealth are found throughout the Greek Old Testament, the Septuagint. Almost half of the occurrences are found in wisdom literature, where the view on wealth is divided. Many passages identify wealth with security, peace, and leading a full and happy life. Proverbs 10:15, 24:4 and 10:4 are examples of the idea that wealth is the result of living a right life. Yet wisdom texts also warn of the risk of wealth—the danger of pride, of trusting riches rather than God, and of living a corrupt life (H324).

Better to be poor and walk in integrity
than to be crooked in one’s ways even though rich.
–Proverbs 28:6

The words of the prophets, on the other hand, are words of condemnation for wealth. The prophets generally equate rich people with those who have oppressed the poor. The rich have not followed the law, and will be destroyed. It is these texts that are most similar to the language of James in their discussion of rich people. In Amos 8:4-6 the rich are those who trample the needy, they buy the poor for silver, and sell the sweepings from the winnowing floor. Jeremiah 22:13 cries out woe for those who are unrighteous and unjust, making their neighbors work for nothing and withholding their wages. Compare this with James 5:1-6 where the rich are doomed for holding back the wages of the laborer.

In Paul’s Letters ploutos and its forms are common, but are primarily used in to mean full of or great deal, or perhaps overflowing. In 2 Corinthians 8:2, the community is praised for their wealth of generosity. Colossians 3:16 calls us to Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly. The riches of Christ’s glorious inheritance are calling us in Ephesians 1:18, the boundless riches of Christ in 3:8. Paul generally does not discuss the role of the rich person, or the place of wealth within the church.

The synoptic gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke) present many rich characters, and commentaries on wealth. The gospel of John does not use the word. All three synoptics use ploutos, or riches in the story of the seeds sown in a field. The weeds symbolize the deceitfulness of riches, along with worry of the world in Matthew 13:22 and desires for other things in Mark 4:19. Riches choke out the word of God. We can see where James got his concern for friendliness with the world when we look at Luke’s version of this story. Luke 8:14 has worries and riches and pleasures of this life preventing the seed from taking root.

Indeed Jesus’ message does not take root in the story of the rich young man seeking eternal life. In Luke he is described as a ruler or official, but in all three gospels Jesus comment is about the man’s wealth.

Again I tell you, it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for someone who is rich to enter the kingdom of God.
-Matt 19:24, Mk 10:25, Lk 18:25

Yet all is possible with God, and we find a rich man, Joseph of Arimathea, is called a disciple in Matthew 27:57. Since he is identified as rich, and a disciple, perhaps we can assume that he did not take a vow of poverty when he chose to follow Jesus. It seems likely, however that he did not expect special privileges because of his wealth. Notice in Mark 12:41-44, Jesus does not suggest that the wealthy are not welcome in the community. His point is rather that the poor widow’s gift greater than theirs.

In the same way, James takes on the problem of poor and rich visitors in 2:1-5. The message is not to send the rich away, but that their wealth does not bring privilege. The rich are called to be humble and the congregation is reminded to treat everyone equally. God opposes the proud, but gives grace to the humble. –James 4:6

Luke is the most explicit gospel writer in suggesting that the wealthy will be brought low. Luke’s addition of woes to the beatitudes in 6:24-26 reminds the rich that they have their reward now, and should expect suffering later. The story of the rich fool, storing away his wealth in Luke 12:16 calls to mind James 5:3 where the rich have foolishly laid up treasure for the last days. Indeed in Luke 16:19-31 the poor beggar Lazarus is comforted by God while the rich man burns. And yet only Luke, with the most harsh in critique of wealth, has the story of Zacchaeus (19:1-10), the rich man who hears the call to repentance. Zacchaeus gives away half his possessions, and gives back four times to any he has defrauded. Consider again James 4:1-10 and the offer of conversion for the rich.

Draw near to God, and he will draw near to you. Cleanse your hands, you sinners, and purify your hearts, you double-minded. -James 4:8

Resources (Link to full Bibliography for web site)
Frederich Hauck, Wilhelm Kasch, “ploutos”, in Freidrich Gerhard ed, Geoffrey W. Bromily, trans., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament Vol VI (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1968.)

Works, Ergon
Various forms of ergon meaning deeds or works is found 158 times in the New Testament and 12 times in James. The word is used often for God's work, but also for human labor. Throughout the Greek world there is a tension between words, logos, and works, ergon. Greek philosophy and the Old Testament demand that our words and works be kept in harmony (Bertram 254). This is clearly James' call in 1:25 and 2:17.

In James 1:4 you may not notice the presence of works, it is translated result or effect. In 1:25 it is the word effectual or act, not doer that is a form of ergon. The verse is then being not hearers who forget but doers who "ergon" literally do works or complete deeds. Wisdom and works are connected in James 3:13 where the gentleness of our deeds or works shows whether we are living by God's wisdom.

Compare the use of ergon throughout James chapter two where faith is dead without ergon, with Hebrews 6:1 where ergon that do not proceed from faith are dead. Paul perhaps is combining these two ideas in 1 Cor 12:6 where having faith makes it so God's work (energeo) can be accomplished. In James 5:16 as well it is our effective prayer, that is energeo, will accomplish, again energeo, much. Again it is God who is actually doing the work. The Greek energeo still means to be at work or to act, but is related to having energy for action (Bertram 254).

G. Bertram, "Ergon" in Freidrich Gerhard ed, Geoffrey W. Bromily, trans., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament Vol VI (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1968.)

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All material ©Women's Division, 2002. For permission to use, or to link to our site, contact J. Ann Craig. Unless otherwise noted, articles are by Elizabeth M. Magill, MDiv. 2002 Episcopal Divinity School.